The Inca Age in cusco

 It is believed that the peruvian territory was populated since 8,000 B.C. by Asian migrating populations, however, we can not talk about a cultural unit because of the registered culture succession since 2,500 B.C., which it first passed through a primitive agriculture and cattle period; it was affirmed the ceramics period in the X Century B.C. The well developed Chavin culture from Huantar, characterized by its great ceremonial buildings and the practice of an evolved culture is one of the first testimonies. At the IV century already was recorded a higher development degree of cultures settled in its territories (Chimu and Nazca), which stand out because of their textile, metallurgy and higher technology irrigation system.
In the VI century A.D. we had the Tiahuanaco Culture. In the XII century A.D. a "quechua" language town was born which was managed by soveraigns called Incas, with poulations which migrated from the Titicaca Lake's banks to Cusco, organization which attained in short time a great territorial expansion.
The Inca Age
The Incas settled down its Empire capital in Cusco City. The Empire was managed by a government system under the Inca's royal tutelage, who was confered with divine powers and enjoyed a great respect. Their religion was monotheist, governed by the Wiracocha god image; this was a laborious and intelligent town which dominated mathematics, astronomy, architecture and ceramics. The stood out in hydraulics and were great farmers and makers of their environment, cultivating their land through the terrace system, called "andenes" (platforms).
In their social structure, there were well defined social categories, the lands were Inca's property and had the "ayllu" as economic unit, organized as per blood links, parent relationship or common forefathers.



The three great and outstanding ones, were Pachacutec, who greatly extended the Empire because of his conquests; Tupac Yupanqui, who established the inspection system in his domains; and Huayna Capac, who conquested the Quito Zone.
The Conquest
Even when the Inca Empire still had not reached its maturity and was weakened by the Civil War between Huascar and Atahualpa, it took place the Spanish colonization; this, after several attempts, began in 1531 in a movement managed by Francisco Pizarro, who took as prisoner Atahualpa in the year 1532 and killed him on the next year, at the same time spaniards entered to Cusco, what took place on January 15, 1533.
Lima, Peruvian Capital city, foundation took place on January 18, 1535 by Francisco Pizarro with the name of "City of the Kings", which turned to be the Nation's Capital; from that moment on, the rivalries among conquerors come about over and over, giving rise to civil wars among them until 1554. Almagro was defeated by Pizarro at Salinas Battle, which occurred on 1538. Just in 1547 the turbulence of Spanish dominion finished with the sending by Spanish side of Pedro de La Gasca (Clergyman), who succeeded in pacifying the intentions, thus consolidating definitively the Peruvian Viceroyship, which constituted the conquested territories in South America, but not the Caracas government, which belonged to Nueva España Viceroyship (Mexico). On May 12, 1551 took place the foundation of the first of our country's university (Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos), becoming into the spanish culture center in America; at the same time there were created superior institutes in Arequipa, Trujillo, Pasco and Huancavelica. In 1584, the first printing shop was established by Jesuits. In 1739, the Nueva Granada Viceroyship was definitively born, based on the Panama, Santa Fe and Quito Audiences, to loose, in 1776, the Charcas Audiences, the Tucuman, La Asunción and Buenos Aires Governments, and the Cuyo District, thus becoming reduced to only the Peruvian, Bolivian and Chilean Territories.
The indigenous insurrections of Santos Atahualpa in 1742 and Tupac Amaru in 1780-81, along with the firm position of Viceroy Abascal, prevented the arising of independent attitudes. Between 1805 and 1810, there were produced several rebellion attempts against the colonial authority, being suffocated cruelly.

Peru, full machupichu

The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century.
From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, including, besides Peru, large parts of modern Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and central Chile, and southern Colombia into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia.
The official language of the empire was Quechua, although hundreds of local languages and dialects of Quechua were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as The Four Regions or The Four United Provinces.
There were many local forms of worship, most of them concerning local sacred "Huacas", but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti—the sun god—and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama. The Incas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun."
The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, "four parts together." In Quechua the term Tawantin is a group of four things (tawa "four" with the suffix -ntin which names a group). Suyu means "region" or "province". The empire was divided into four suyus, whose corners met at the capital, Cusco (Qosqo). The name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu which is often still used today.
The term Inka means ruler, or lord, in Quechua, and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family in the empire. The Spanish adopted the term (transliterated as Inca in Spanish) as an ethnic term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca (Inca Empire) referred to the nation that they encountered, and subsequently conquered.
The Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cuzco area around the 12th century. Under the leadership of Manco Cápac, they formed the small city-state Kingdom of Cuzco (Quechua Qusqu'Qosqo). In 1438, they began a far-reaching expansion under the command of Sapa Inca (paramount leader) Pachacuti-Cusi Yupanqui, whose name literally meant "earth-shaker". The name of Pachacuti was given to him after conquering over the Tribe of Chancas (modern Apurímac). During his reign, he and his son Tupac Yupanqui brought much of the Andes mountains (roughly modern Peru and Ecuador) under Inca control.   

Machu Picchu, Quechua: Machu Pichu, "Old Peak") is a pre-Columbian 15th-century Inca site located 2,430 metres (7,970 ft) above sea level.  Machu Picchu is located in the Cusco Region of Peru, South America. It is situated on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, which is 80 kilometres (50 mi) northwest of Cusco and through which the Urubamba River flows. Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti (1438–1472). Often referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas", it is perhaps the most familiar icon of the Inca World.
The Incas started building the "estate" around AD 1400, but abandoned it as an official site for the Inca rulers a century later at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Although known locally, it was unknown to the outside world before being brought to international attention in 1911 by the American historian Hiram Bingham. Since then, Machu Picchu has become an important tourist attraction. Most of the outlying buildings have been reconstructed in order to give tourists a better idea of what the structures originally looked like. By 1976, thirty percent of Machu Picchu had been restored. The restoration work continues to this day.
Since the site was never known to the Spanish during their conquest, it is highly significant as a relatively intact cultural site. Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide Internet poll.
Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry-stone walls. Its three primary structures are the Intihuatana (Hitching post of the Sun), the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. These are located in what is known by archaeologists as the Sacred District of Machu Picchu. In September 2007, Peru and Yale University almost reached an agreement regarding the return of artifacts which Yale has held since Hiram Bingham removed them from Machu Picchu in the early 20th century. In November 2010, a Yale University representative agreed to return the artifacts to a Peruvian university.

peru, inca, Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimú

The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 years BCE.  The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Cupisnique, Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimu. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money.
In 1532, a group of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured Inca Emperor Atahualpa. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru. The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.
In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability. National identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral. Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla through increased state revenues from guano exports. However, by the 1870s, these resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.

Peru covers 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi). It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes Mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán. The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.

Peruvian gastronomy and products

From Peru, the Spanish brought back to Europe a few foods that would become staples for many peoples around the world.
    •    Tomatoes: Tomatoes were introduced to Europe from Latin America.
    •    Beans: Several varieties of the Common bean are native to America.
    •    Peanuts: The Peanut is native to South America.
The varieties of chili peppers, potatoes and maize that the Spanish brought back to Europe, however, were not native to Peru:
    •    Peppers: Chili peppers are native to America. The varieties most commonly used around the world, however, derive from Mexico and Central America. Sweet Peppers are native to Mexico and Central America. Peruvian Ají peppers are virtually unknown outside of the Andean region of South America.
    •    Potatoes: Potatoes were considered livestock feed in Europe until French chemist Antoine-Augustin Parmentier began serving dishes made from the tubers at his lavish banquets. His guests were immediately convinced that potatoes were fit for human consumption. Parmentier's introduction of the potato is still discussed in Europe today. The varieties used in Europe and most of the world, however, derive from a subspecies Solanum tuberosum.
    •    Maize: Maize is native to all of Central and South America. The varieties used in Europe and most of the world, however, are from Central America. The corn native to Peru is not sweet and has very large grains and is not popular outside of Latin America. (For an example of this Peruvian corn, please examine the photo entitled Pachamanca serving below).
From Spain, Peru received a vast quantity of foods which are now considered staples such as rice, wheat, barley, oats, rice, lentils, chickpeas, broad beans, garlic, cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, artichokes, onions, cucumbers, carrots, celery, lettuce, eggplant, wine, vinegar, olives, beef, pork, chicken, numerous spices (including coriander, cumin, parsley, cilantro, laurel, mint, thyme, marjoram, turmeric, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, anise, black pepper and oregano), bananas, quince, apples, oranges, limes, apricots, peaches, plums, cherries, melons, figs, pomegranates, honey, white sugar, almonds, walnuts, cheese, hen eggs, cow's milk, etc. etc. For some reason, however, many food plants popular in Spain were never imported to Peru or failed to grow due to climatic conditions such as lemons, turnips, kale, chestnuts, etc.
Peru is considered an important center for the genetic diversity of the world's crops:
Peruvian potatoes
    •    Maize (corn), 35 varieties
    •    Tomatoes, 15 species
    •    Potatoes, 200 species of potato are native to the Andes region. Over 99% of all cultivated potatoes worldwide are descendants of a subspecies, namely Solanum tuberosum. This subspecies has developed into thousands of varieties that vary by size, shape, color, and other sensory characteristics.
    •    Sweet potatoes, 150 varieties
    •    Peanuts are native to Peru and were taken by Spanish and Portuguese merchants to Africa.
    •    Fruits, about 20 native varieties exist which are used in Peru as food (detailed below).
It is important to note, however, that only a small number of these varieties are commercially available. Only two varieties of maize are commonly available. The most common type has very large kernels and is not sweet. The second common variety is a type of fibrous purple corn which is not eaten but is used exclusively to make chicha morada. The third variety is a type of sweet corn which is popular in the United States which is mainly purchased by foreigners due to its high price. Occasionally one finds dried kernels of four varieties of multi-colored corn, which are used in stews or soups. Only two varieties of red tomatoes are commercially available, one is called Italian, while the other is known as American. Only two varieties of sweet potato are commonly available for sale. One has dry orange flesh and light tan skin and tastes sweet. The other variety has purple skin, is white and brown inside and is only moderately sweet. Occasionally another variety which is characterized by small tubers and dark skin and tastes like the purple skin variety. In the case of potatoes one finds more variety. The two most commonly available, however, are a white flesh type and a more expensive yellow flesh type. The only commercially available fruits native to Peru (and the Andes region in general, i.e. Ecuador, Chile, Bolivia) are lucuma, camu camu, prickly pear, cape gooseberry, cocona, pacay (technically a legume but used as a fruit), guanabana, dragon fruit, pepino, papaya, ciruela, mammee apple, banana passionfruit, cherimoya, granadilla, moriche palm fruit and tamarillo. Yacon, although an underground tuber, is also used as a fruit. None of the other native fruits are commercially available.

Peruvian cuisine stems mainly from the combination of local cuisines and ingredients with the cuisines of Spain, China, Italy, West Africa and Japan, due to the arrival of immigrants from those locations! Due to a lack of ingredients from their home regions in Peru, these immigrants modified their traditional cuisine using items native to Peru and those which had been introduced by the Spanish during the colonial period. The three traditional staples of Peruvian cuisine are corn, potatoes and beans. These ingredients have been combined with a number of staples brought by the Spanish, such as rice, wheat and meat (such as beef, pork and chicken). Many traditional foods, such as quinoa, kiwicha, chili peppers and several roots and tubers, which had been tossed aside for European products since Colonial times, have seen a resurgence in popularity in recent decades with a revival of interest in native Peruvian food crops and culinary techniques.

Inca civilization - Arts and technology

Arts and technology

Monumental architecture

Digital reconstruction of original Inca painting on Room 42 wall, Tambo Colorado.
Inca architecture was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The main example is the capital city of Cuzco. The site of Machu Picchu was constructed by Inca engineers. The Inca constructed stone temples without using mortars yet the stones fit together so well that one could not fit a knife through the stonework.
The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable. In areas with fewer stone resources, buildings were constructed using materials such as mud-brick adobe, which would then be covered in stucco and painted for additional durability. At the late Inca settlement of Tambo Colorado, for example, color was often applied in horizontal strips of red, black, white, and yellow ochre atop stucco, and variation in color would accentuate architectural features such as niches.
The Inca had an extensive road system which consisted of two main roads as described in the following quote by Cieza de Léon: "The Incas built two roads the length of the country. The Royal Road went through the highlands for a distance of 3,250 miles, while the Coastal Road followed the seacoast for 2,520 miles."
Ceramics, precious metal work, and textiles

Almost all of the gold and silver work of the empire was melted down by the conquistadors. Ceramics were painted in numerous motifs including birds, waves, felines, and geometric patterns. The most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the Cusco bottles or ¨aryballos¨. Many of these pieces are on display in Lima in the Larco Archaeological Museum and the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History. Textiles were important in that they showed social status, and could also be used as armor. Another important use of textiles was in the creation of rope bridges across gorges.
Agriculture and farming

The Inca lived in mountainous terrain, which is not good for farming. To resolve this problem, terraces were cut into steep slopes, known as andenes, in order to plant crops. They also used irrigation. They grew maize, quinoa, squash, tomatoes, peanuts, chili peppers, melons, cotton, and potatoes. Though all of their agriculture was important, their main food source was potatoes, unlike the Maya and the Aztecs, whose main food source was maize. The Inca was the first civilization to plant and harvest potatoes. Quinoa was also a main crop. They would use their seeds to make different foods.
The Inca were the first civilization to use the freeze-dry method of storage. They would leave potatoes outside in the cold, then stomp on them in the morning to push out the water, and allow them to dry in the sun. This process would be repeated 3 or 4 times, until the dried potatoes were ready for storage. At this point they were called chuño.
Discoveries
Mathematics and medicine
An important Inca technology was the Quipu, which were assemblages of knotted strings used to record information, the exact nature of which is no longer known. Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data.
The Incas had no iron or steel, but they had developed an alloy of bronze superior to that of their enemies and contemporary Mesoamericans. The Andean nations prior to the Incas used arsenical bronze at best. The Incas introduced to South America the tin / copper alloy which is today commonly associated with "Bronze Age" metallurgy.

history of Peru- Inca civilization

The first step in the expansion of the Inca Empire was the defeat of the Hanan Chankas, a group that lived in the departments of Ayacucho and Huancavelica, near Cuzco. That allowed them to control a large territory around Cuzco and incorporate its population into its army. The expansion continued to the Lake Titicaca region where they allied with the Lupaca ethnic group to defeat the powerful Hatun Colla. The Incas had a special interest to control this region due to their abundant natural resources. After his military victory, Inca Pachacuti rebuilt Cuzco.

In 1438 AD, under the command of Sapa Inca (paramount leader) Pachacuti, much of modern day southern Peru was conquered. Cuzco was rebuilt as a major city and capital of the newly reorganized empire. Known as Tawantinsuyu, it was a federalist system, consisting of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Contisuyu (SW), and Collasuyu (SE). The powerful Inca emperor is also thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a vacation retreat.

The Incas conquered a vast territory using reciprocity or alliances. Pachacuti would send spies to regions he had wanted in his empire. They would then report back on the political organization, military might, and wealth. The Sapa Inca would then send messages to the leaders of these lands, extolling the benefits of joining his empire. He offered gifts of luxury goods like high quality textiles,coca leaves and mullu and promised that all living in those territories would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. The neighboring rulers' children would be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, and then would return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former rulers' children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. If they did not accept the alliance they used force to subdue the tribe and since the Incas had a more powerful military force they always succeeded. The local leaders were executed to secure loyalty among the population.

Inca civilization - history of Peru

The Inca civilization (or Inka) began as a tribe in the Cuzco area, where the legendary first Sapa Inca, Manco Capac founded the Kingdom of Cuzco around 1200. Under the leadership of the descendants of Manco Capac, the Inca state grew to absorb other Andean communities. In 1442, the Incas began a far-reaching expansion under the command of Pachacutec. He founded the Inca Empire or Tahuantinsuyo, which became the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.

The empire was split by a civil war to decide who would be Inca Hanan and who would be Inca Hurin (Hanan and Hurin represent the families of the higher parts of the city (Hanan) and those of the lower parts (Hurin) it is believed that one of the brothers was from Hanan Cuzco and the other from Hurin Cuzco as they were part of the family of their mothers), which pitted the brothers Huascar and Atahualpa against each other. In 1533, Spanish Conquistadores led by Francisco Pizarro, took advantage of this situation and conquered much of the existing Inca territory. In succeeding years, the invaders consolidated power over the whole Andean region, repressing successive Inca resistance and culminating in the establishment of the Viceroyalty of Perú in 1542.

The militant phase of Inca liberation movements ended with the fall of resistance in Vilcabamba during 1573. Though indigenous sovereignty was lost, Inca cultural traditions remain strong among surviving indigenous descendants, such as the Quechua and Aymara people.

 History of the Incas
According to myth, Incan civilization began with Manco Capac, who carried a golden staff called the ‘tapac-yauri’. The Inca were instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth, to honor their celestial father. After a long journey, including a tour of the underworld, the Inca arrived at Cuzco, where they built the temple. During the journey, one of Manco’s brothers, and possibly a sister, was turned to stone (huaca) = "sacred/holy". 

In another version of this legend, instead of emerging from a cave in Cuzco, the siblings emerged from the waters of Lake Titicaca.
In ancient times Inca Virachocha's son Manco Cápac lived at Pacari-Tampu, today known as Pacaritambo, 25 km (16 mi) south of Cuzco. He and his brothers (Ayar Anca, Ayar Cachi, and Ayar Uchu), and sisters (Mama Ocllo, Mama Huaco, Mama Raua, and Mama Cura) lived near Cuzco at Paccari-Tampu. Uniting their people, and the ten ayllu they encountered in their travels, they set to conquering the tribes of the Cuzco Valley. This legend also incorporates the motif of the golden staff, given to Manco Capac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to some versions, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, viciously raped and killed them, and thus became the sole ruler of Cuzco.