Peruvian gastronomy and products

From Peru, the Spanish brought back to Europe a few foods that would become staples for many peoples around the world.
    •    Tomatoes: Tomatoes were introduced to Europe from Latin America.
    •    Beans: Several varieties of the Common bean are native to America.
    •    Peanuts: The Peanut is native to South America.
The varieties of chili peppers, potatoes and maize that the Spanish brought back to Europe, however, were not native to Peru:
    •    Peppers: Chili peppers are native to America. The varieties most commonly used around the world, however, derive from Mexico and Central America. Sweet Peppers are native to Mexico and Central America. Peruvian Ají peppers are virtually unknown outside of the Andean region of South America.
    •    Potatoes: Potatoes were considered livestock feed in Europe until French chemist Antoine-Augustin Parmentier began serving dishes made from the tubers at his lavish banquets. His guests were immediately convinced that potatoes were fit for human consumption. Parmentier's introduction of the potato is still discussed in Europe today. The varieties used in Europe and most of the world, however, derive from a subspecies Solanum tuberosum.
    •    Maize: Maize is native to all of Central and South America. The varieties used in Europe and most of the world, however, are from Central America. The corn native to Peru is not sweet and has very large grains and is not popular outside of Latin America. (For an example of this Peruvian corn, please examine the photo entitled Pachamanca serving below).
From Spain, Peru received a vast quantity of foods which are now considered staples such as rice, wheat, barley, oats, rice, lentils, chickpeas, broad beans, garlic, cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, artichokes, onions, cucumbers, carrots, celery, lettuce, eggplant, wine, vinegar, olives, beef, pork, chicken, numerous spices (including coriander, cumin, parsley, cilantro, laurel, mint, thyme, marjoram, turmeric, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, anise, black pepper and oregano), bananas, quince, apples, oranges, limes, apricots, peaches, plums, cherries, melons, figs, pomegranates, honey, white sugar, almonds, walnuts, cheese, hen eggs, cow's milk, etc. etc. For some reason, however, many food plants popular in Spain were never imported to Peru or failed to grow due to climatic conditions such as lemons, turnips, kale, chestnuts, etc.
Peru is considered an important center for the genetic diversity of the world's crops:
Peruvian potatoes
    •    Maize (corn), 35 varieties
    •    Tomatoes, 15 species
    •    Potatoes, 200 species of potato are native to the Andes region. Over 99% of all cultivated potatoes worldwide are descendants of a subspecies, namely Solanum tuberosum. This subspecies has developed into thousands of varieties that vary by size, shape, color, and other sensory characteristics.
    •    Sweet potatoes, 150 varieties
    •    Peanuts are native to Peru and were taken by Spanish and Portuguese merchants to Africa.
    •    Fruits, about 20 native varieties exist which are used in Peru as food (detailed below).
It is important to note, however, that only a small number of these varieties are commercially available. Only two varieties of maize are commonly available. The most common type has very large kernels and is not sweet. The second common variety is a type of fibrous purple corn which is not eaten but is used exclusively to make chicha morada. The third variety is a type of sweet corn which is popular in the United States which is mainly purchased by foreigners due to its high price. Occasionally one finds dried kernels of four varieties of multi-colored corn, which are used in stews or soups. Only two varieties of red tomatoes are commercially available, one is called Italian, while the other is known as American. Only two varieties of sweet potato are commonly available for sale. One has dry orange flesh and light tan skin and tastes sweet. The other variety has purple skin, is white and brown inside and is only moderately sweet. Occasionally another variety which is characterized by small tubers and dark skin and tastes like the purple skin variety. In the case of potatoes one finds more variety. The two most commonly available, however, are a white flesh type and a more expensive yellow flesh type. The only commercially available fruits native to Peru (and the Andes region in general, i.e. Ecuador, Chile, Bolivia) are lucuma, camu camu, prickly pear, cape gooseberry, cocona, pacay (technically a legume but used as a fruit), guanabana, dragon fruit, pepino, papaya, ciruela, mammee apple, banana passionfruit, cherimoya, granadilla, moriche palm fruit and tamarillo. Yacon, although an underground tuber, is also used as a fruit. None of the other native fruits are commercially available.

Peruvian cuisine stems mainly from the combination of local cuisines and ingredients with the cuisines of Spain, China, Italy, West Africa and Japan, due to the arrival of immigrants from those locations! Due to a lack of ingredients from their home regions in Peru, these immigrants modified their traditional cuisine using items native to Peru and those which had been introduced by the Spanish during the colonial period. The three traditional staples of Peruvian cuisine are corn, potatoes and beans. These ingredients have been combined with a number of staples brought by the Spanish, such as rice, wheat and meat (such as beef, pork and chicken). Many traditional foods, such as quinoa, kiwicha, chili peppers and several roots and tubers, which had been tossed aside for European products since Colonial times, have seen a resurgence in popularity in recent decades with a revival of interest in native Peruvian food crops and culinary techniques.

Inca civilization - Arts and technology

Arts and technology

Monumental architecture

Digital reconstruction of original Inca painting on Room 42 wall, Tambo Colorado.
Inca architecture was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The main example is the capital city of Cuzco. The site of Machu Picchu was constructed by Inca engineers. The Inca constructed stone temples without using mortars yet the stones fit together so well that one could not fit a knife through the stonework.
The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable. In areas with fewer stone resources, buildings were constructed using materials such as mud-brick adobe, which would then be covered in stucco and painted for additional durability. At the late Inca settlement of Tambo Colorado, for example, color was often applied in horizontal strips of red, black, white, and yellow ochre atop stucco, and variation in color would accentuate architectural features such as niches.
The Inca had an extensive road system which consisted of two main roads as described in the following quote by Cieza de Léon: "The Incas built two roads the length of the country. The Royal Road went through the highlands for a distance of 3,250 miles, while the Coastal Road followed the seacoast for 2,520 miles."
Ceramics, precious metal work, and textiles

Almost all of the gold and silver work of the empire was melted down by the conquistadors. Ceramics were painted in numerous motifs including birds, waves, felines, and geometric patterns. The most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the Cusco bottles or ¨aryballos¨. Many of these pieces are on display in Lima in the Larco Archaeological Museum and the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History. Textiles were important in that they showed social status, and could also be used as armor. Another important use of textiles was in the creation of rope bridges across gorges.
Agriculture and farming

The Inca lived in mountainous terrain, which is not good for farming. To resolve this problem, terraces were cut into steep slopes, known as andenes, in order to plant crops. They also used irrigation. They grew maize, quinoa, squash, tomatoes, peanuts, chili peppers, melons, cotton, and potatoes. Though all of their agriculture was important, their main food source was potatoes, unlike the Maya and the Aztecs, whose main food source was maize. The Inca was the first civilization to plant and harvest potatoes. Quinoa was also a main crop. They would use their seeds to make different foods.
The Inca were the first civilization to use the freeze-dry method of storage. They would leave potatoes outside in the cold, then stomp on them in the morning to push out the water, and allow them to dry in the sun. This process would be repeated 3 or 4 times, until the dried potatoes were ready for storage. At this point they were called chuño.
Discoveries
Mathematics and medicine
An important Inca technology was the Quipu, which were assemblages of knotted strings used to record information, the exact nature of which is no longer known. Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data.
The Incas had no iron or steel, but they had developed an alloy of bronze superior to that of their enemies and contemporary Mesoamericans. The Andean nations prior to the Incas used arsenical bronze at best. The Incas introduced to South America the tin / copper alloy which is today commonly associated with "Bronze Age" metallurgy.

history of Peru- Inca civilization

The first step in the expansion of the Inca Empire was the defeat of the Hanan Chankas, a group that lived in the departments of Ayacucho and Huancavelica, near Cuzco. That allowed them to control a large territory around Cuzco and incorporate its population into its army. The expansion continued to the Lake Titicaca region where they allied with the Lupaca ethnic group to defeat the powerful Hatun Colla. The Incas had a special interest to control this region due to their abundant natural resources. After his military victory, Inca Pachacuti rebuilt Cuzco.

In 1438 AD, under the command of Sapa Inca (paramount leader) Pachacuti, much of modern day southern Peru was conquered. Cuzco was rebuilt as a major city and capital of the newly reorganized empire. Known as Tawantinsuyu, it was a federalist system, consisting of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Contisuyu (SW), and Collasuyu (SE). The powerful Inca emperor is also thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a vacation retreat.

The Incas conquered a vast territory using reciprocity or alliances. Pachacuti would send spies to regions he had wanted in his empire. They would then report back on the political organization, military might, and wealth. The Sapa Inca would then send messages to the leaders of these lands, extolling the benefits of joining his empire. He offered gifts of luxury goods like high quality textiles,coca leaves and mullu and promised that all living in those territories would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. The neighboring rulers' children would be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, and then would return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former rulers' children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. If they did not accept the alliance they used force to subdue the tribe and since the Incas had a more powerful military force they always succeeded. The local leaders were executed to secure loyalty among the population.

Inca civilization - history of Peru

The Inca civilization (or Inka) began as a tribe in the Cuzco area, where the legendary first Sapa Inca, Manco Capac founded the Kingdom of Cuzco around 1200. Under the leadership of the descendants of Manco Capac, the Inca state grew to absorb other Andean communities. In 1442, the Incas began a far-reaching expansion under the command of Pachacutec. He founded the Inca Empire or Tahuantinsuyo, which became the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.

The empire was split by a civil war to decide who would be Inca Hanan and who would be Inca Hurin (Hanan and Hurin represent the families of the higher parts of the city (Hanan) and those of the lower parts (Hurin) it is believed that one of the brothers was from Hanan Cuzco and the other from Hurin Cuzco as they were part of the family of their mothers), which pitted the brothers Huascar and Atahualpa against each other. In 1533, Spanish Conquistadores led by Francisco Pizarro, took advantage of this situation and conquered much of the existing Inca territory. In succeeding years, the invaders consolidated power over the whole Andean region, repressing successive Inca resistance and culminating in the establishment of the Viceroyalty of Perú in 1542.

The militant phase of Inca liberation movements ended with the fall of resistance in Vilcabamba during 1573. Though indigenous sovereignty was lost, Inca cultural traditions remain strong among surviving indigenous descendants, such as the Quechua and Aymara people.

 History of the Incas
According to myth, Incan civilization began with Manco Capac, who carried a golden staff called the ‘tapac-yauri’. The Inca were instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth, to honor their celestial father. After a long journey, including a tour of the underworld, the Inca arrived at Cuzco, where they built the temple. During the journey, one of Manco’s brothers, and possibly a sister, was turned to stone (huaca) = "sacred/holy". 

In another version of this legend, instead of emerging from a cave in Cuzco, the siblings emerged from the waters of Lake Titicaca.
In ancient times Inca Virachocha's son Manco Cápac lived at Pacari-Tampu, today known as Pacaritambo, 25 km (16 mi) south of Cuzco. He and his brothers (Ayar Anca, Ayar Cachi, and Ayar Uchu), and sisters (Mama Ocllo, Mama Huaco, Mama Raua, and Mama Cura) lived near Cuzco at Paccari-Tampu. Uniting their people, and the ten ayllu they encountered in their travels, they set to conquering the tribes of the Cuzco Valley. This legend also incorporates the motif of the golden staff, given to Manco Capac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to some versions, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, viciously raped and killed them, and thus became the sole ruler of Cuzco.